Music Theory for Producers, Part 2
In Part 1 of this two-part series, we covered rhythmic concepts that are important for producers to know. This time around, we’ll provide a quick overview of chord theory. If you’re producing music but are not exactly sure how chords are constructed or how they relate to melodies, read on!
Built on Scales
In order to understand chord construction, it’s important to have a good grasp of intervals, which are the distances between notes. In Western music, the smallest interval is a semitone, which is also known as a half-step. A distance of two half-steps equals one whole step. So a half-step above C would be C#; a whole step above C would be D, etc.
Chords are groupings of three or more notes that are played simultaneously, and they are built on scale tones (that is, notes in its scale). If you know solfege (do re mi fa so la ti do), then you know what a major scale sounds like. The key of a scale is determined by the pitch of its root note (“do”). As an example, here’s an illustration of a piano keyboard with the notes of a C major scale indicated. For additional context, the solfege equivalents are presented as well.
All major scales have identical intervals. They’re all whole steps, with two exceptions, as you can see in the above illustration: There’s only a half-step between the third and fourth degrees (i.e., E and F in this example), and between the seventh degree and the first degree of the scale in the next octave (i.e., B and C in this example).
Three is a Chord
The most basic chord form is a triad. It has three notes and is a building block for more complex chords. A major triad is made up of the first degree (the tonic) plus the third-degree and the fifth-degree (dominant) tones in the scale. These are usually referred to as the “root, third and fifth.” For example, here’s a C-major triad:
The graphic editors in your DAW show notes in the form of a piano keyboard, although they are usually oriented vertically instead of horizontally. Here’s how a C-major triad is displayed in the Steinberg Cubase Key Editor:
If you lower the third in a major triad by one semitone (that is, if you flat it), the result is a minor triad. Minor chords sound sad or even mysterious compared to the happy sound of major chords. As an example, here’s a C minor chord:
Here’s how that same chord looks in Cubase’s Key Editor.
The intervals in a major triad consist of the root, a major third (the note four semitones higher than the root) and a perfect fifth (the note seven semitones higher than the root). The reason the fifth is called “perfect” is to distinguish it from flattened (“diminished”) fifths a half step lower, and sharpened (“augmented”) fifths a half step higher. (More about these shortly.)
Inversions
Inversions are chords that don’t have the root on the bottom. They’re made up of the same notes as regular (non-inverted) chords but use one of the other chord tones for the bass — a neat trick that really changes the sound. If you put the third on the bottom, it’s called the first inversion; if you put the fifth on the bottom, it’s called the second inversion.
Increasing Chordal Complexity: Sevenths, Ninths, and More
Chords sound more complex as you add notes to them. Adding the seventh degree of a major scale to a major triad gives you a major-seventh chord. These chords (indicated with a “maj7” at the end; i.e., Cmaj7) can be described as mellow or sweet-sounding. A stronger version of the seventh chord is the dominant seventh (indicated just as “7”; i.e., C7). It’s constructed the same way as a major-seventh chord except that you drop the seventh degree down by a half step, turning it into a flatted seventh.
A minor seventh chord is a minor triad plus a flatted seventh. You can build even more complex chords on top of either major or minor seventh chords. For example, a ninth chord (written as a “9” chord; i.e., C9) is made up of a dominant seventh chord with a ninth added on top. A minor-ninth chord (written as a “m9”; i.e., Cm9) consists of a minor seventh chord with a ninth added.
You might be wondering how you get a ninth when a major scale only has seven notes. The answer is that a ninth is a second (which in the key of C would be a D; in D, it would be an E and so forth) played an octave higher. Think of it this way: If you were counting up a major scale, instead of stopping after the seventh degree and starting again in the next octave, you instead continue counting. The octave above the root would be eight, and the next scale tone would be nine.
You use a similar method to create eleventh and thirteenth chords. Start with a dominant-seventh, major-seventh or minor-seventh chord and count up to the eleventh degree of the scale for an eleventh chord, or to the thirteenth degree for a thirteenth chord.
You may also run across chords with “add 9” or “add 11” or “add 13” in their name. Those are similar to ninth, eleventh and thirteenth chords but don’t have a seventh (either major or minor) in them.
Augmented and Diminished Chords
Another fairly common chord type is the augmented chord — a major triad with the fifth degree raised by a half-step. You’ll see these expressed with a plus sign or +5 after the chord name (for example, C+ or C+5).
The opposite of these are diminished chords — minor triads with the fifth degree lowered by a half-step. Diminished chords are written with “dim” after the chord name or the symbol “o” after the chord name (for example, Cdim or Co). Both augmented and diminished chords can have sevenths added to create augmented seventh and diminished seventh chords, respectively.
One other chord form you’ll run into a lot is the suspended (Sus4) chord. These are created by raising the third of a major triad by one semitone. You can also add a seventh on top to make a 7sus4 chord, such as an C7sus4. The thing about suspended chords is that they want to be resolved. In other words, after you raise the third, you should then bring it back down again. (A great example of this is Pete Townshend’s power strumming in the intro to The Who song “Pinball Wizard.”) If you don’t resolve it, it leaves the listener hanging.
Fitting In
Within any key, there are seven chords made up exclusively of notes from that key’s major scale. These are called diatonic chords. Typically, they’re referred to by their scale degree numbers and are written with Roman numerals.
The relationships between these chords are the same in every key. In the key of C, the diatonic chords are Cmaj7 (I), Dm (II), Em (III), F (IV), G (V), Am (VI) and Bdim (VII). In the key of G, they’re Gmaj7 (I), Am (II), Bm (III), C (IV), D (V), Em (VI) and Fdim (VII).
If you hear somebody refer to the “II-chord” or the “IV-chord,” etc., they’re talking about diatonic chords. You can assume that the II chord is a minor chord, the IV a major chord, and so on, unless stated otherwise (the “II-dominant-seventh” or the “VI-major,” etc.).
You may have also heard about songs that have a “I-IV-V” chord progression (for example, C-F-G). That’s typically referencing the standard chords in a blues song (as well as many rock songs). A common jazz turnaround is a “II-V” (for example, in the key of D, II-V would be Em to A). However, jazz players almost always add at least a flatted-seventh note to both chords, if not additional chord tones on top.
On Track
Steinberg Cubase has several really helpful features for dealing with chords and scales, including Chord Track, which allows you to enter the chords to your song into the measures they go in. You then can make any MIDI parts in the song conform to the specified chords. Similar features can be found in some other DAWs.
If you use Cubase’s Scale Assistant feature, you can set it to follow the Chord Track so that any notes you record will be constrained to the chord or chords in a given measure. If, like me, you’re not a good keyboard player, you can set up a chord track and then just play the same three- (or more) note chord against the whole song, and Cubase will alter the notes to fit the Chord Track.
Once you have a good handle on these basic principles, you’ll be able to analyze the chords you’re using in your productions and better understand what’s going on harmonically — which in turn can help you write more interesting chord progressions that can help make the songs stand out.
Check out these related blog postings:
Music Theory for Producers, Part 1
Major Scale Modes, Part 1: Ionian Mode
Check out our other Recording Basics postings.
Click here for more information about Steinberg Cubase.
To help the board understand the value of the capital expense, Gibb-Clark has invited its members to performances and provided updates on participation, competition results and equipment use. In fact, all the audiovisual equipment bought by the show choir has been used for the other choirs and musicals while the sound system has also been utilized at graduation. “It was an investment beyond the show choir,” Gibb-Clark says.
At Highland, each ensemble focuses on different musical genres and gives students different learning and performance opportunities. For example, the madrigals sing at the 
Cox has a dual role at Crosby, directing 6th, 7th and 8th grade choirs as well as teaching digital music classes that are part of the school’s overall STEAM (science, technology, engineering, the arts and mathematics) program.
She’ll also use visual cues, perhaps requesting that students touch their noses when they can identify the first dynamic change or use 
They also participate in three to six formal evening concerts for family, some in collaboration with the high school choir from nearby 
Beyond just teaching the mechanics of singing, Cox strives to create a community where everyone values each other’s contributions. Each choir class elects several officers who help with taking attendance and mentoring new students. “Sometimes my strongest leaders are not necessarily the strongest musicians,” she says. “I’m looking not just for musical leaders but [also for] leaders in how to rehearse or … students who are really encouraging of their peers. … I try to find and identify one area in which they’re really strong and try to foster that area.”
In Cox’s digital music courses, students come from all parts of the school. Some have performing arts classes while others don’t. “It’s nice that they can get a different approach to the arts,” she says.
Joining a 22-year leader — Kevin Bennett — at the helm, Bock did not want to rock the boat. “Any time you go into a program as a second director, you don’t get a clean slate to just change it to whatever you want,” Bock says. “Kevin definitely established an amazing culture. But you always want to make the program feel a little bit more like your own. … It was really important for me to identify what my vision was — what do I bring to the table in this already established, successful program?”
“It was at the top of every single paper, but when I asked any student what the motto was, not a single [one] could have told me four years ago,” Bock says. “Now if you ask, they all can tell you what the motto is, and the students bring that to everything we do,” including during rehearsals, at performances or just walking onto the field.
Then, Bock created a leadership training program using developed techniques from authors and well-known music education advocates, 
With 250 students in a band program comprising four concert bands, four jazz bands, two woodwind choirs, a marching band (with about half of the students), two winter guards and a concert percussion ensemble, Bock believes that there are hands-on roles for at least 100 students.
When students resist change, Bock is comfortable with letting them stick to the status quo. For example, Bock had considered assigning low brass instruments to students for greater efficiency, not realizing that they felt a special tradition with picking out their own, almost like a “Harry Potter” wand-selection moment, she says.
Bock took over as head marching band director in 2020, and for the future, she hopes to build on the excitement of the Hawaii trip to get more students and parents involved in the program, perhaps by hosting a competition.
Traditional RPG systems have three fundamental components: describe, decide and roll. To begin, the description is given by the 
Using an RPG to deliver my violin content and curriculum through a world of wizards and mystery was just the escape that my students and I needed. As RPGs are built from the perspective of the GM, it’s easy to manage a classroom while delivering the story and teaching the lesson. Because the RPG community is so welcoming, I found an incredible wealth of resources that helped a GM novice like me build a world my students connect with and allow me to deliver my curriculum effectively. It is easy to do, and the results are among the most rewarding I’ve experienced in my teaching career.
I named the world Vitula, which is the medieval Latin name for the group of instruments that ultimately became the violin family. In building the framework for Vitula, I needed a fantasy realm that allowed me to be spontaneous, creative and flexible. I love manipulatives and designing sets for theater, so I constructed a world that required diorama components to describe it. By incorporating digital elements, I connected the experience of the classroom with our online students to illustrate that they are integral in our community.
The first two years (known as “books”) of the story are completed. Book 1, entitled “Which Side Are You On?,” introduces the conflicts, factions and varying perspectives of individuals within Vitula. Students interact with fictionalized versions of musical figures and locations, including Val di Fieme, Ole Bull, Il Canone and the wizard Orlandini (named after an Italian luthier).
credibly populate my world. I did not pick specific characters that already existed because I wanted the freedom to develop my own.
When all of this is achieved, the true power of the RPG is unleashed. By using an RPG in the classroom, I share about our real world and teach music in a way that builds wonder, respect and joy as well as increases skill level. It feels great to finally hear a beginning violinist plead, “Mr. Gamon, will you please teach me to play a scale?”
Switching flutes to French horns, on the other hand, works quite well. Here’s why:
Before you have flute students play horn in band, allow them to take a loaner home and try it out for a week or two. This will prevent them from feeling lost in the middle of a rehearsal. When the time comes, be direct with your class and mention the switch during announcements. This will keep classroom management in check and prevent any whisperings of “Why is Susan on the horn now?!”
Villanueva, who graduated with dual bachelor’s degrees in music education and jazz studies from 
Villanueva teaches all 600 students at Orange Grove. Each grade is divided into several classes that meet for 30 minutes per week for TK and 1st grade, 45 minutes for 2nd through 4th grades, and 90 minutes for 5th and 6th grades. During the 2020-2021 academic year when the entire school was virtual until April, he met with 6th graders twice per week.
Villanueva specifically wanted melodicas, a combination wind instrument and keyboard, for younger grades. “I got the idea of incorporating melodicas after seeing some videos of children in Japan,” he says. “Plus, it’s louder than electronic keyboards, so for performance purposes, it’s great to project. It’s also a good segue into 5th grade and 6th grade when students have to learn to use their air. Not only are they developing keyboard skills, but they’re also learning breathing skills.”
In past years, Orange Grove students participated in the 
Villanueva brings more and more new ideas to his classes because he is constantly learning through his recent master’s program as well as during freelance gigs, professional development classes such as Little Kids Rock educational events, and side work with the 
To help with YCCT’s launch, we selected an eclectic board of directors with a passion for children’s singing. Current board members include local public-school music teachers, Baylor music education faculty members, parents, choral musicians and community advocates. We also employ a business manager (CPA) and have an attorney who volunteers advice when called upon.
Interns act as small group facilitators for practice pods. Older choristers are spaced strategically among younger singers to ensure all have helpers nearby to aid with tasks like finding their place on the printed page, marking scores and, most importantly, providing a vocal support and encouragement. We are aware of when and how we employ the use of the “surrogate” teacher.
One thing we have discovered is that if the older singers are always asked to serve as models for their younger peers, their own needs are not served. Therefore, we ask the collegiate interns to model for the older chorus and, in turn, the staff models vocal and teaching techniques for the interns. Each rehearsal begins and ends with a brief staff meeting and debriefing that especially focuses on interns’ needs and questions.
Upgrade the Sound System
Once your phone or tablet is connected to a sound system via Bluetooth, you can utilize your phone’s voice memo taker as a recording and playback station for your classroom. Record a difficult passage with your phone and play the recording back while speaking directly to the students who need your help. Moving the phone around the room will allow you to capture the moments that the students may not be hearing. For instance, recording close to the students who are out of tune might help you segue into the importance of listening and tuning without calling out specific students. Let the recording be the bad guy.
Apart from technology, seating and staging have a large impact on how students act in the music room. Though traditional seating is important for posture and performance, is there space in your room for a non-traditional seating area?
Elementary music classrooms utilize yoga balls, buckets and even 
Depending on your school setting and policies, the simplest solution is to open a window or door if you possibly can — even for short periods during cold-weather months. (Be sure the window is screened and or secured in a way that it will not create a fall risk for students.)
Beyond simple fresh air, consider what else students might be inhaling and strive for a cleaner indoor space.
One week, I taught 10 classes the same singing game called “
What helped me become more confident was understanding the science about voice and sound. I never enjoyed hearing my singing or speaking voice, and I learned that there was a reason for this. It’s called voice confrontation.
I bought a tripod for my cell phone and a green blanket so I could record instruments and remove the background on the computer. That was all I needed to make a majority of my instrument lesson videos.
Seeing the views go up on a new or even an old lesson gives me a sense of gratification that I can’t get anywhere else. I really enjoy the recent vlogging because teachers need to know that they are not the only professionals experiencing this era of COVID music education. I received a comment that said, “I needed to hear this,” which was all I needed to know that it was time well spent.
Our initial step was to have students learn a short etude that was well within their ability level for a pass-off due on a certain date. We told the students that they collectively had to decide benchmark dates prior to the due date and how much of the etude needed to be learned and performed by those benchmarks. This is where we left it as we wanted the ownership of their backward planning to be solely on them.
Students at the higher level had not necessarily been taught how to practice, but they were achieving at an adequate level solely because of the overall time they spent on their instrument. Students were mindlessly practicing by repping a piece over and over again until they, by pure repetition, memorized the music — oftentimes with errors and limited musicality.
Direct parents into your new classroom: Parents tend to bypass “Specials” classrooms like music during after-school events. At my first open house, I greeted a few parents toward the beginning, then nobody came to my classroom for the next three hours. Yikes! If you’re new, do a bit of advertising. Make a poster with your name and subject on it and add a few bells and whistles like ribbons and bright colors. Maybe even play a little bit of soft music to make your room more welcoming. You’re going to want to meet your students’ families long before the musical or (even worse) the end of the grading period.
4. Build Rapport with Students
When Cox noticed a high staff turnover, poor retention and low skill levels in the middle school band program from her five feeder schools, Cox recruited her students involved with the 
In addition, with her background teaching general elementary music prior to becoming director at Lake Worth, Cox regularly goes to the elementary schools. Because the closest elementary school is within walking distance, Cox brings her high school musicians to perform there several times a year. The drumline plays on the first day of school as buses arrive; a pep band performs during the elementary school’s Halloween parade; and band students also host a standardized testing pep rally.
After a few years at Lake Worth, Cox had noticed that students were joining high school band as freshmen, sophomores and juniors, and then quitting. “It was a cultural norm for kids to go to work and support the family,” Cox says. “It’s been a challenge to teach the kids that band is a four-year thing.”
It was impossible to do the necessary legwork during the school year, so my husband, Kris Antonetti, and I worked in the buildings during the summer when the air conditioning was not turned on. At the time, we only had desktop computers — no laptops or tablets — so we started in the hot storage room, writing down instrument model numbers and serial numbers on a yellow legal pad. Then we went back to my office to input this information on my computer. We spent hours doing this.
We started with the problems I faced and then gathered ideas from other directors to see what was needed most. Many of our music education friends faced similar challenges in their classrooms. We wanted to focus on the inventory aspect of organization, so we started developing instrument and uniform management as well as the ability to check these items out to students and to organize students into ensembles.
We met with Dave Gnojek, the associate design director at 
Fix It: Mallet Placement and Equal Right-to-Left-Hand Involvement
Populations in rural communities tend to be stable. Many of your colleagues and your students have years of community and institutional knowledge. Many students have had the same educator group since kindergarten. They will be curious about you, and the more comfortable you are answering their questions, the more successful you will be. I start every year at 
The Happiness Mix Project
Once students can tell a sad song from a scary song from a happy song, he says, “I would say, let’s recognize we can use songs to feel better when we feel sad, and start asking the ‘why’ questions.”
Looking at an explosion of population on the northside of San Antonio, the NEISD 2005 bond aimed to relieve stress on Reagan, which had a capacity of 3,000 students, but enrollment was approaching 4,000. The initial plans for Johnson provided for a capacity of 3,000 students, but during construction, administrators approved an additional wing that expanded capacity to 3,200. The new campus included a 4,000-square-foot music rehearsal hall.
The CBAC identified Reagan, Johnson and 
Thankfully, our district had recently made the music librarian the de facto music coordinator for the district, so I went to him and asked for his help and support. Additionally, I came up with several plans of my own. I was not allowed to charge band participation fees, but I could charge instrument rental fees. We have some instruments in the district rental pool, and some instruments at the schools. For the school instruments, I could charge the same rental fees as the district, and I used that money to fund a repair and supply budget. This went into effect almost immediately.
To recruit students for the beginning band at Meadows Elementary, I made sure to talk to all 5th graders on the third day of school along with the elementary strings teacher. She played her instruments, and I played several winds instruments including clarinet, trombone and trumpet. We answered questions and handed out interest forms, which also helped with instrumentation as we could assign students to their first or second instrument choices.
With each year of experience, I have gained more confidence as a music educator and have found better ways to be effective, efficient, and to challenge and support my students in the classroom. I have brought in guests from universities and local businesses to talk to my students and broaden their understanding of music. I have commissioned new works for my band as part of a consortium. I have taken my groups to festivals, tours and on trips to enrich their band experience. I just want to continue to challenge my students and let them experience life through the power of music.
In past years, Zeilinger has even taught hand bell and steel drums when students express the desire. “When I see the interest, I’m going to go down that path because I want my students’ high school experiences to be memorable. … My program is really focused on developing the desire among students to pursue something they’re passionate about.”
Starting in the 2021-2022 school year, students will have the option to participate in the academy and benefit from a field trip to the 
Often, teachers are intrinsically driven to make the favored ensemble from their past the highest quality possible because they have such a clear picture of what they want, they know what success looks like, and they have a strong connection to that particular ensemble.
In the fall of 2019, after two years of learning, consulting and writing grants, we had a recording studio in our school! I remember feeling confident that I knew what I didn’t know on the first day of my Digital Audio Production class. Little did I know that I was peering into a doorway of doorways!
For instance, our marching band went from a three-set to a 60-set show and started participating in the 
An LEA might also address the needs of students arising from the COVID-19 pandemic by using ESSER and GEER funds to implement or expand arts programs, 
Developing and implementing procedures and systems to improve the preparedness and response efforts of LEAs.
Schaffer and the art teacher now start the recruiting process by visiting 5th grade classes together. “[The art teacher] takes a couple examples of artwork, and I do a quick breakdown on [the process of band].”
In his first couple of years at his previous position at 
As they return to “normal,” students may be dealing with grief over lost loved ones and worries about feeling safe. On top of that, they have the evergreen stressors, such as going through puberty, concerns over their appearance or being bullied. Parents are likely feeling anxious, too, with their own worries about employment, physical safety and learning losses for their children.
Road Trip!
